What Happened to Australia’s ‘Stolen Generation’?

Zoe Lodge

A look into the history and consequence of removal practices against indigenous Australian youth, the “Stolen Generation.”

indigenous australian child

Indigenous Australian children. Mark Roy. CC BY-SA 2.0.

From the early 20th century until as late as the 1970s, Australia carried out a government-sanctioned campaign that forcibly removed Indigenous children from their families in a bid to assimilate them into white society. While much global attention has focused on the legacy of boarding schools for Indigenous children in North America, similar practices were inflicted on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples under British colonial rule, often with the encouragement of the Roman Catholic Church and other Christian institutions. These efforts left generational scars, contributing to the systemic inequality and social fragmentation that persist into the modern day.

This dark chapter in Australian history is commonly referred to as the “Stolen Generation.” According to a report conducted by the U.S. Department of the Interior, which investigated comparable initiatives across the globe, roughly one in three Indigenous children in Australia were forcibly taken from their homes between 1910 and 1970. These children were placed in church- and state-run institutions or sent to live with white families that exemplified Western values, where they were stripped of their language, culture and identity. The underlying goal, both ideological and colonial, was to “civilize” these children by erasing their cultural roots and integrating them into a white-dominated society.

These practices were grounded in a racist belief system that deemed white Australian culture, rooted in Western European culture, inherently superior. Authorities at the time regarded the removal of Indigenous children as a moral duty and a practical solution to what was referred to as “the Aboriginal problem.” In reality, the result was a trauma that has rippled through generations. Children taken from their families frequently endured physical and emotional abuse, neglect, and, in many cases, sexual assault. They were often treated as cheap labor and denied access to adequate education and healthcare.

Although Australia never formally established a network of Indigenous boarding schools akin to those in the U.S. and Canada, the assimilationist mission was no less destructive. Despite making up only about 6% of Australia’s youth population, Indigenous children account for almost 50% of those in out-of-home care, which includes placement in foster care, group homes and with kinship carers. This gaping disparity emphasizes the lasting effects of these programs, leaving First Nations people to deal with dislocation, cultural loss and intergenerational trauma.

In recent years, the Australian government has taken steps to acknowledge and atone for these policies. A national apology was issued in 2008, followed by reparations exceeding $375 million for surviving members of the Stolen Generation. Additionally, individual states have contributed over $200 million in compensation funds for those affected. However, many argue that financial reparations, while important, cannot undo the profound harm caused by decades of systemic cultural erasure and displacement.

Australia’s history with its Indigenous populations is not unique. As the DOI report highlights, these tactics of domination and forced assimilation are not isolated but part of a broader colonial pattern seen across Canada, the United States and New Zealand. These initiatives, driven by the dual forces of governmental policies and religious institutions, sought to erase Indigenous culture in favor of Eurocentric ideals. From the earliest boarding schools in the United States and Canada to parallel programs in Australia and New Zealand, the common thread was the colonial power’s blatant disregard for the autonomy, culture and humanity of Indigenous communities, particularly through religious messaging and values. These institutions inflicted lasting harm, not only by physically removing children from their homes and subjecting them to abuse but also by obliterating the cultural traditions and languages that sustained Indigenous identities for generations. 

GET INVOLVED:

One of the primary organizations focused on bringing justice to the First Nations people of Australia is ANTAR, which offers several ways to get involved, raise awareness and contribute to justice for the Indigenous people of Australia. Locals can volunteer with the organizations, and citizens worldwide can contribute to fundraising efforts or participate in global education and awareness campaigns. Other organizations with similar missions include Pay the Rent, IWGIA and the Aboriginal Legal Service.

Learn more

Zoe Lodge

Zoe is a student at the University of California, Berkeley, where she is studying English and Politics, Philosophy, & Law. She combines her passion for writing with her love for travel, interest in combatting climate change, and concern for social justice issues.



Aboriginal Australians: Ancient Roots and Modern Struggles

Centuries after British Settlement and mass destruction of their culture, Aboriginal Australians continue to be discriminated against by the Australian government. 

Three Aboriginal men together in traditional dress aiming a throw.

Aboriginal Men in 2011. Steve Evans. CC BY 2.0

Aboriginal Australians have experienced systemic disadvantages throughout Australia’s history. Noted as one of the oldest Indigenous communities living outside of Africa, Aboriginal Australians led an advanced lifestyle in precolonial times. According to an article in The Conversation, Indigenous Australians are noted for “establishing complex religions, burying their dead with elaborate rituals, engaging in long-distance trade, making jewelry, and producing magnificent works of art” when Europe was still home to Neanderthals. 

The ancestors of Indigenous Australians migrated to the continent from Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia and the Philippines. Numerous studies investigating the Indigenous group conclude that Aborigines have lived in Australia for approximately 65,000 years. Across the country, Aborigines speak more than 250 distinct languages. There are two classifications of Indigenous people in Australia—the Aboriginal peoples and the Torres Strait Islanders. Aboriginal Australians are those whose ancestors lived in mainland Australia before the arrival of European colonists, while Torres Strait Islanders have traditionally lived in an archipelago between the continent and Papua New Guinea to the north. 

Over time, Australia’s Aboriginal presence has fallen to just 3% of the national population due to colonization and legal restrictions. When British Settlement began in 1788, 750,000 to 1.25 million Aboriginal Australians were living in the country at the time. The British brought epidemics, land seizures, and violent conflict, subjecting most Aboriginal Australians to poverty and massacres. According to National Geographic, “[t]hough the term ‘genocide’ remains controversial, people related to the continent’s first inhabitants are widely considered to have been wiped out through violence.” 

From 1910 to 1970, the Australian government created assimilation policies for Aboriginal Australian children, resulting in the Stolen Generations. Successive administrations took Indigenous children away from their families and put them into adoptive families or institutions, forbidding them from speaking their native languages or even keeping their original names.

Today’s Aborigines still face various hurdles as a result of settlement, one being accessible maternal healthcare.  Edie, an Aboriginal woman interviewed by BBC, explains her recent involvement with a movement called Birthing on Country following the birth of her fourth child and observations about the dearth in Indigenous mother healthcare in Australia. Her colleague and co-director of the Molly Wardahuha Research Centre Yvette Roe explains that the organization is, “a concept with key elements: when we talk about ‘Country,’ we’re talking about ancestral connection to the country where we’re born. We’re talking about 60,000 years of connection to the land and sky.” Lack of proper maternal care for Indigenous mothers results in them being three times more likely to die during childbirth than non-Indigenous mothers, and their babies almost twice as likely to die in the first year. The maternal health crisis reflects general disparities that exist for Australia’s Indigenous population. Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander people face high levels of discrimination, unemployment, poor housing and poor education compared to their counterparts. Concentration in remote locations has also limited access to life-saving services.

Additionally, Aboriginals continue to fight for general recognition and restitution by the Australian government. As the only country in the Commonwealth of Nations country to not make a treaty with its Indigenous population, Australia's Parliament attempted to recognise Aboriginals in its Constitution and create an Indigenous advisory board that would weigh in on national, relevant issues along with Parliament. In the fall of 2023, Australia rejected the referendum. While most of the Indigenous voters were in favor of the referendum, 60% of Australian voters said no. The Aboriginal community took a week of silence and reflection following the decision. In the Queensland Parliament, the "Path to Treaty Act 2023" was legislated with an 88 out of 92 member majority. Truth and Treaty Queensland described it as a, “Historic piece of legislation … the Act provides the legislative framework for the Truth-telling and Healing Inquiry and the First Nations Treaty Institute to be established.”

Since the late 1700’s,  Aboriginal Australians have struggled at the hands of foreign settlers. Whether it is maternal healthcare or incorporation into Australia’s Constitution, their rights and needs have been and continue to be disregarded in numerous ways across the country. 

TO GET INVOLVED

Australians are encouraged to get involved with their local Aboriginal communities by attending community events and participating in local Aboriginal tours. Residents can also explore local Aboriginal Land Councils to learn about what actions are currently being taken in their communities. Creativespirits.info explains what land councils do to help Indigenous Australians and has a comprehensive list of Aboriginal land councils in Australia. Activist groups such as Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation (ANTaR) and Stop the Intervention Collective Sydney (STICS) are actively working to help remediate the injustices Aboriginals are facing across Australia.

Aanya Panyadahundi

Aanya is a student at the University of Michigan studying sociology and journalism on a pre-law path. She loves to travel the world whenever she can, always eager to learn more about the different cultures and societies around her. In her free time, she likes to play the violin, ski, and listen to podcasts.

Will Bougainville Become the World’s Newest Country?

98% of the Bougainville population voted for independence from Papua New Guinea in 2019, but the quest for nationhood remains uncertain.

A view of Bougainville. Jeremy Weate. CC BY 2.0.

In 2019, Bougainville, an island that is politically part of Papua New Guinea (PNG) but culturally and linguistically separate, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Around 98% of the population voted to leave PNG to form their own country. With such a large majority supporting independence, the government of PNG cannot ignore the demands of Bougainville, and negotiations  are currently underway to devise a peaceful path to independence that satisfies both parties involved.

Located around 160 kilometers from the island of New Ireland and 1,000 kilometers from Port Moresby, the capital of PNG on the island of New Guinea, Bougainville is geographically part of the Solomon island chain. Due to its remote location from the rest of PNG, it has a unique history. A part of the German Empire until 1946, PNG was then transferred to Australian administration. When Australia granted independence to PNG in 1975, Bougainville was to be included in the new country, against the protests of the people there.

The people of Bougainville made several attempts at independence over the years, including in 1975. In the late 1980s, the region got plunged into a civil war due to the disagreements over the operation of the Panguna mine, one of the largest and most profitable mines in the world. To the residents of Bougainville, the mine, which was supported by the PNG government, represented another imperial imposition to their land. As part of the peace settlement that established Bougainville as an autonomous region in 2001, the residents of Bougainville were to be entitled to an independence referendum every 10 to 15 years. That first referendum happened in 2019, which resulted in overwhelming support for independence.

The location of Bougainville relative to the rest of PNG. Mr Accountable. CC BY-SA 3.0.

The next steps are uncertain. It is not feasible for any entity to gain complete independence overnight so there will be a transition period before Bougainville becomes a fully sovereign country. The agreement between Bougainville and the rest of PNG stipulates that independence shall be attained no later than 2027. Both parties are now trying to figure out the best way forward.

PNG is generally reluctant to grant independence to Bougainville, as their prime minister James Marape is worried that giving independence to Bougainville will set a precedent for other secessionist parts of the country. He insists that the parliament of PNG must approve independence. The government of PNG also points out that the referendum is non-binding.

The Bougainville side, however, says that the role of the parliament is only to ratify the actual results of the referendum or the outcome of the post-ratification consultations. After over a year of negotiations, both parties, in 2021, agreed to have a political settlement “no earlier than 2025 and no later than 2027.” Most governmental powers will also be transferred to Bougainville by 2023, with the rest to follow by 2027.

However, challenges remain. Today, Bougainville has a GDP per capita of $1,100, which is around the same level as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Niger and Somalia, all of whom face notable challenges in poverty, health and political stability. It remains to be seen whether Bougainville will be able to secure recognition by other nations, as well as become a member of the United Nations, usually considered one of the benchmarks of independence. Ensuring a peaceful transition that results in a stable government that does not depend on foreign aid will be essential in the future success of Bougainville. While not there yet, the world could welcome a new country by 2027.

Bryan Fok

Bryan is currently a History and Global Affairs major at the University of Notre Dame. He aims to apply the notion of Integral Human Development as a framework for analyzing global issues. He enjoys hiking and visiting national parks.

The Unique Landscapes of New Zealand's Milford Sounds

Milford Sound located in Fiordland National Park’s diverse landscape has been preserved for years, drawing travelers from around the world.

Milford Sound is often considered a destination for immersing oneself in nature. Located on the west coast of the southern island, the sound is situated in New Zealand’s Fiordland National Park. A sound, by definition, is a valley filled with seawater. Milfrorf Sound, however, is formed from glacial water, which technically makes it a fiord. Milford Sound has attracted visitors for centuries, but the history of the sound dates back more than 1,000 years. 

The Māori first discovered the fiord, using the land for fishing, hunting and mining pounamu (green jade). According to Māori legend, the sound was carved by Atua, a godly figure who split the cliffs surrounding the sound. The Māori named Milfrod Sound Piopiotahi in refrence to a native bird. A Māori tells the story of a piopio bird flying over the sound after the legendary figure Maui died while pursuing immortality.

In 1877, a man from Scotland settled in Milford Sound, opening the first hotel with his wife. Visitors in the late 19th century and early 20th century were only able to reach the sound through a walking path, Milford Track. In 1954, a tunnel was drilled through the rock surrounding the sound, bringing new road access. With the building of the road, Milford Sound became much more accessible to travelers and has drawn large numbers of visitors from around the world. 

Milford Track is still available to explore today within the boundaries of the national park. The path is over 30 miles long and typically takes four to five days to complete. Each night, hikers can stay at a hut along the route before continuing the next day. The trail starts at the head of Lake Te Anau and ends a short boat ride away from Milford Sound. There are also many different day-hikes that visitors can complete to see the park as well as a variety of boat tours. The area experiences heavy rainfall year round, which provides the lush environment and abundance of waterfalls. Kayaking is also popular among visitors, as it allows people to explore the water in an eco-friendly way. 

One of the iconic sites of Milford Sound is the Mitre Peak. The mountain sharply rises up from the water, reaching a height of more than 5,000 feet. Additionally, the area is well known for its waterfalls. Lady Bowen Falls, the tallest permanent waterfall in the park, feeds directly into the fiord. Accessible by boat and a short hike, the falls are another important landmark in Milford Sound.

Milford Sound is not just known for its beautiful scenery and nature, but is an important aspect of New Zealand's heritage. The national park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognized for its unique landscapes and wildlife. The area is protected by several laws, including the Conservation Act of 1987, to ensure that the area will continue to prosper.

Dana Flynn

Dana is a recent graduate from Tufts University with a degree in English. While at Tufts she enjoyed working on a campus literary magazine and reading as much as possible. Originally from the Pacific Northwest, she loves to explore and learn new things.

Slope Point and Champagne Pool: Exploring New Zealand’s Wild Wonders

Sometimes nature is simple: vibrant sunsets, rays of warming moonlight or bouncing ocean waves. Other times, however, nature shocks and stuns. New Zealand houses two such examples: the odd site of Slope Point and the equally eerie Champagne Pool.

Slope Point with sheep. Seabird NZ. CC BY-ND 2.0. 

Slope Point

Perhaps most descriptions of the wonders of wind speak of a gentle breeze or freshly blowing air. On the southernmost tip of New Zealand’s South Island, the winds are instead far from calm; the violently whipping winds gave one area the name “Slope Point.” Situated along a steep cliff at the island’s southern edge, Slope Point is an ideal spot for those mystified by science. The ocean winds are violent and unrelenting to the area’s trees. The wind provides a scary picture of nature’s true power, blowing away anything that may come in its path. The location of Slope Point forces the trees to become the first victims of the winds. As a result, the tall trees are bent at an odd angle, making them seem as if they were purposely posed. Although few people live in the area, local farmers planted the trees to provide shelter from the wind for their herds of sheep. 

Photographs of the area offer profound inspiration for artists: the odd trees bend against a gray background striped with warm rays of sun. Although the area hosts an eerie feel, it is surely one underlined with the beauty of Mother Nature’s masterful hand. 

Champagne Pool

Boiling Champagne Pool. t3rmin4t0r. CC BY 2.0. 

Far north of Slope Point lies the mystical Champagne Pool on New Zealand’s North Island. Although an uncanny site, Champagne Pool is only one of many geothermal spots peppering the area around the city of Rotorua. The surrounding area, called Wai-O-Tapu, is known for its geothermal sites carved throughout the landscape. The strips of active volcanic sites and geothermal pools have created an admittedly scary yet magnificent look into what lies just beneath our feet. 

Champagne Pool is a captivating hot spring that stretches over 200 feet and is about equally as deep. A hydrothermal eruption caused this crater, which boils at over 160 degrees Fahrenheit, to form about 900 years ago. The hot spring earned its name from the presence of carbon dioxide that causes it to bubble like Champagne. Although seemingly uninhabitable, the hot spring teems with a rich microbial ecosystem. Additionally, striking photos of the site capture the vibrancy of the pool’s outer rim. Its neon orange strip is caused by antimony deposits that harden on the cooled rim of the pool. The surrounding grounds are equally rich in minerals; gold, mercury and silver are found in nearby rock beds. 

Whether one is an artist, a scientist or an adventurous visitor, both Slope Point and Champagne Pool stand as equally inspiring trips. 

Ella Nguyen

Ella is an undergraduate student at Vassar College pursuing a degree in Hispanic Studies. She wants to assist in the field of immigration law and hopes to utilize Spanish in her future projects. In her free time she enjoys cooking, writing poetry, and learning about cosmetics.